Algorithms and Data Structures

Divide and conquer, and sorting

Divide and conquer is a broadly applicable problem solving strategy, renowned for producing astonishing results.One astonishing result is the Karatsuba algorithm for fast multiplication of two n-digit numbers. The renowned complexity theorist Kolmogorov had conjectured that the fastest possible multiplication algorithm was O(n²), and presented this conjecture at a seminar in 1960 attended by the then 23-year-old Karatsuba. Within a week, Karatsuba had disproved the conjecture, finding an O(n^log₂3) algorithm using an approach which would later come to be named divide and conquer.

This caused Kolmogorov to become wildly excited, terminating the seminar series and publishing and article on the result in Karatsuba’s name, kick starting a period of intense interest in the area.

The history of the result is detailed in Karatsuba’s later paper The Complexity of Computations. Pictured below is Karatsuba as a high school graduate, a few years before his remarkable discovery.

We’ll explore the idea generally, as well as in the context of sorting. Here we’ll explore the problem until we’re convinced that it can be done at no better than O(n²), and be duly impressed by two divide and conquer based algorithms that manage to run at the much better O(n log n)! It’s uncommon—though a rare pleasure—to implement your own sorting algorithms from scratch, so instead we’ll focus our discussion on the overall strategy, as it can be applied in main domains outside of searching and sorting.

Tree traversal and graph traversal

If we had to choose a single Greatest Hit of algorithms, it would be graph search. It’s tempting to give examples where graph search shines,The stereotypical examples are social networks, the web and the internet. But if we were to emphasize these examples, you’re likely to come away with a narrow view of what is in fact a very broadly applicable tool. but by the end of this module you’ll actually appreciate that almost anything can be modeled as a graph and almost any problem can be solved with graph search.

In this module we’ll start with simple breadth first and depth first traversal over trees, then first extend our use of these algorithms to graphs. While already very powerful, we can further extend these techniques to searching over weighted graphsA weighted graph is one where the strength of the relationship between two entities matters, which we model by assigning a “weight” value to edges. which turns out to be a common problem.

To search over weighted graphs, we introduce two important algorithms: Dijkstra’s algorithmWhile we stick with the convention of calling this algorithm Dijkstra’s, the better name—used more in the AI community—is “uniform cost search”. Dijkstra was the first to develop many algorithms, but this one was well known to others before Dijkstra re-discovered it. Furthermore, “uniform cost search” begins to describe its approach: the frontier of the search is defined by points of equivalent cost. and A*.Pronounced “A-star”, this algorithm was developed at Stanford Research Institute to help Shakey the Robot navigate obstacles in a room. At the time, Dijkstra’s algorithm was the best path planning option available. A* was seen as a minor enhancement to the algorithm, but the improvement in efficiency was very significant.

Pictured below is Shakey on display at Computer History Museum.

Using A* search in practice is all about finding suitable “heuristic functions”, which are measures of how close we are to our goal. We’ll practice this skill on problems where the choice of heuristic function makes a significant difference.

Dynamic programming

This class ensures that your recursive thinking is not in vain, by introducing dynamic programming: an important technique to avoid unnecessary computation and render certain recursive problems tractable.The name “dynamic programming” could certainly be more descriptive. Richard Bellman claims in his autobiography that he chose these words because it’s impossible to use the adjective “dynamic” in a pejorative sense, and because the practical connotation of the word “programming” would appeal to the research-averse Secretary of Defense of the time (who was indirectly responsible for his funding).

This story may not quite be true; an alternative account suggests that he was trying to “upstage Dantzig’s linear programming by adding dynamic”. For more, see the dynamic programming Wikipedia article. Dynamic programming has proved invaluable in applications varying from database query optimization to sequence alignment in bioinformatics.